Sexual orientation refers to people's sexual desires or attractions based on their sex relative to that of the target (Moser, 2015). Everyone seems to agree to the existence of two sexual orientations: heterosexuality and homosexuality. In recent years, however, several sexual orientations have been proposed including bisexuality, asexuality, polyamory, and pedophilia amongst others. There are suggestions that women may not have a sexual orientation due to the lack of consistency that most women exhibit. When it comes to bisexuality, it is often not clear whether it comprises a sexual orientation and an interest inconsistent with that orientation or the coexistence of both the homosexual and heterosexual orientations in a single individual. It has constantly been suggested that the heterosexual-homosexual continuum be divided into other discrete orientations. Male and female sexual orientations manifest in a variety of ways. While men's sexual orientations are linked to their sexual arousal patterns, women's orientations are less likely linked to their sexual arousal (Walton, Lykins & Bhullar, 2016). A section of professionals and activists dispute the suggestion that other sexual orientations besides heterosexual and homosexual can exist. Several factors contribute to the development of sexual orientations. These factors can either be biological or environmental. They affect the males and the females differently leading to more occurrences of diverse sexual orientations in males than ion females. Several scientific factors exist that can explain the diverse sexual orientation that has become a part of society today.
Several biological and environmental factors are brought to play in the development of sexual orientation. Prenatal hormones, though not the sole cause, contribute greatly to sexual orientations. Based on scientific evidence both biological and non-social environmental factors influence sexual orientation. Scientific pieces of evidence do not support the notion of environmental factors being responsible for the development of sexual orientations. This is however supported by sociologists who attribute a variety of environmental factors to the diverse sexual orientations that humans develop. According to LeVay (2010), sexual orientation is as a result of an interaction between sex hormones, genes, the brain and the cells of the developing baby. LeVay's scientific research has reported a different brain structure between straight and gay men. He goes ahead to report the manipulation of sexual hormones in animals by researchers to prompt same-sex mating.
An individual's sexual orientation, therefore, arises from biological processes that occur even before birth. Factors such as genetics, endocrinology, and manipulation of sexual hormones, family demographics, and evolutionary psychology play an important role in the formation of diverse sexual orientations (LeVay, 2010).
Studies have revealed a greater tendency for males to have a diverse sexual orientation than females (van Anders & Schudson, 2017). Scientific studies on twin siblings have reported a high likability of monozygotic male twins to have homosexual orientations that dizygotic male twins. Identical inherit the same genes and exhibit more homosexual tendencies than non-identical twins. This is proof enough that sexual orientation is genetic. The field of epigenetics explains the influence of the interaction between genes and environmental factors either before a child is born or after (van Anders, 2015). The field of epigenetics surfaced after new methods of identifying the molecular mechanisms (epi-marks) that mediate the environmental effect ion gene expression was found.
Molecular mechanisms can phase out after some time. But under specific conditions, they can be passed over to future generations. Biologically all females have two X chromosomes, one of which is in an inactive state. Scientists have observed that there's an extreme skewing of inactive X chromosomes in mothers who have homosexual sons. This suggests that a part of the X-chromosome is implicated in determining the baby's sexual orientation (Persson, Ryder & Pfaus, 2015). When an individual develops these molecular mechanisms across generations, a homosexual orientation becomes highly likely.
Other studies reveal that environmental factors play an equally important role in the determination of sexual orientations in both males and females. Factors such as toxic compounds, chemicals, and pesticides may have a significant impact on DNA by creating epi-marks. These factors can interfere with the hormonal system of an expectant mother thereby affecting the levels of sex hormones in a developing fetus as well as the activity of these hormones. Still, on the environmental or external factors, sociological studies have reported that homosexual men have many older brothers and are likely to have older brothers who are homosexual (Birkett, Kuhns, Latkin, Muth & Mustanski, 2015). Additionally, lesbians tend to have more lesbian sisters that heterosexual women. Based on this study, the having more older brothers and sisters who identify as homosexuals drive an individual to identify as one as well. This can be better explained through the sociological theory of social learning.
The social learning theory contends that one's identity is formed through a learned response to social stimuli. This theory emphasizes the societal context of the socialization process rather than the individual mind. It perceives learned identity and behavior as a result of interaction with people who have a particular identity and behavioral traits. In the case homosexual men and women, the possibility of the sexual orientation increases in individuals who are exposed to people who have the same sexual orientation at an early age (Muise, Preyde, Maitland & Milhausen, 2009). As they grow up, they are attracted to the homosexual orientation, not because of their own decisions but rather as a result of growing up in an environment where homosexuality was a norm and adapting to the orientation (Gonsiorek, 2013).
Through social learning, people look at the world through other people's eyes. They become subjective rather than objective in making their decisions. Even though LeVay disagrees with the impact of the environment in influencing an individual's sexual orientation, as far as sociology is concerned, environmental influences tend to have significant impacts on peoples behavioral tendencies.
From an evolutionary point of view, homosexual relationship is perceived to comprise a Darwinian paradox because they do not promote human reproduction. Based on this argument, due to the fact that homosexual relationship do not contribute to the continuation of species, they will automatically be selected against. Based on this suggestion, homosexual orientations would gradually decrease and ultimately disappear with time. However, same-sex orientations have consistently existed in both the human populations and in the animal kingdom. This could be as a result of the mutation of genes from one generation to another in such a way that the homosexual gene remains present in both animals and humans as generations come and go. Homosexuality can only be phased out if it happens to be strictly a social issue. However, genetics and sex hormones play an important role in the formation of sexual orientation such that it becomes difficult to phase out.
No species has been identified where homosexual behavior does not exist. Amongst animals, the homosexual tendencies are related to genetics. Manipulating genes of sex hormones in animals has often resulted in homosexual behavioral tendencies. For example, disabling the fucose mutaratose in mice in a laboratory which influences the levels of estrogen prompted the female mouse to have male tendencies while growing up. Researchers have altered the genes and hormones of animals to find out the resulting effects of the alteration. It, therefore, means that irrespective of whether an organism belongs to the animal kingdom or human species, the tendency for homosexuality is present due to genetical factors. For animals, however, researchers have cited the lack of enough female species in given populations leading to homosexual orientations. Most animals are likely to exhibit bisexual tendencies when in the company of both the same sex and opposite sexes.
In conclusion, human sexuality is a complex field that has attracted a lot of studies over the years. Scientists have in the past provided conflicting ideologies regarding the driving factor behind diverse sexual orientations. However, based on this research paper, genes, sex hormones, and environmental factors play a crucial role in influencing sexual orientations. Sexual orientations begin in the uterus under the influence of the hormonal system of an expectant woman as well as chromosomal factors. External factors can also affect the fetus through the creation of epi-marks which determine a child's sexual orientation even before birth. Additionally, environmental factors such as exposure to homosexuals at a young age can prompt homosexual tendencies through social learning theory. Sexual orientations are not only limited to the human species but the animal species as well. Since the genes play the most active role in the determination of sexual orientations, it's impossible to eradicate diverse sexual orientations.